INTRODUCTION
One of the most
effective teaching methods applied by the foreign language teachers is
Cooperative Learning (CL). It is because CL may lead the foreign language
teachers to bring students into the learning situations of which they can build
communication and interpersonal skills through acquiring information and
enhancing the thinking process behind the groups or team works formed (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).
Each individual in the groups or team works is also expected to give their
contributions in doing various kinds of tasks or projects and solving the
problems.
One commonly
problem faced by the language learners is concerned with understanding about
grammar. Learning and understanding grammar is essential for the language
learners. It is because mastery of grammar will be able to direct students to
perform various language skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and
writing (Cam & Tran, 2017; Mart, 2013; T�rkmen & Aydin, 2016). Thus, learning
grammar is a necessity that cannot be ruled out to achieve good English
competence (Ibrahim, 2016).
The thing to
note is that learning a foreign language cannot be separated from the cultural
understanding possessed by the foreign language. Culture is also considered an
important component in learning a foreign language (Bachman, 1990; Byram, 2014). In this case,
mastery of foreign language material by students is not enough to understand a
foreign language well and successfully, but efforts are needed to understand
the way of life of users or speakers of foreign languages who
live in a place that is depicted through culture (Hinojosa, 2000).
Learning
English as a foreign language indicates that these English learners do not come
from native English-speaking countries, but they learn English from their
respective countries of origin or hometown (Krieger, 2005). This causes
sometimes they have limited access and ability to know and understand
cross-cultural communication (Alptekin, 2002). Thus, students'
understanding of grammar will be better and avoid mistakes in communication or
interaction. One strategy in learning grammar is through translation
activities. The concept of this strategy is known as the 'Grammar Translation
Method' (GTM).
What is
important in the use or application of this GTM strategy is that in foreign
language learning, each student will make an effort to reflect the foreign
language they are learning on the existence of their mother tongue (Harmer, 2007). In addition,
understanding foreign languages is generally related to efforts
to understand the differences and similarities in meaning through the
translation of sentences produced in mother and foreign languages (Brown & Lee, 2015).
Furthermore,
the effort to be able to do cross-cultural translation is not easy. There will
be many problems or cases that arise related to cultural differences between
existing foreign and mother languages. Thus, learning activities with this
strategy also bring students to implement a case or problem-based learning
system (Problem-based Learning - PBL) that leads to collaborative and
constructive activities to solve problems related to conceptual learning
materials (Ribeiro, 2011). To support the
implementation of PBL, CL strategy needs to be applied to bridge the
procurement of collaboration carried out by students (Keyser, 2000).
However, the
implementation of CL will not work well without solid cooperation in a team or
group. The solidity of the team or group that is formed will depend on the role
of each individual in solving problems together. For this reason, an assessment
is needed that can measure the involvement of each individual in the
collaboration that is formed.
Peer assessments may contribute to provide the data around the individuals�
support or inclusions as their delineation of the reality of coming to the
agreeable demeanors as contradicted to the competitive learning (Lejk & Wyvill, 2001; Orsmond et al., 1996). In relation to the explanation
above, this study aims to reveal how the contribution of each individual in the
teamwork formed to solve problems related to understanding grammar through
cross-cultural translation.
Cooperative Learning (CL) strategy
has been well known by many foreign language teachers. In this case, lots of
the foreign language teachers assume that CL gives the effective access for
them to lead the students to have some performances in building communications
and interactions through working together within the small groups or team works
formed (Gillies & Boyle, 2011). The students will
also increase their self-motivations and self confidence in learning through
cooperative and mutual working and positive social relationships done during
their efforts for showing their contributions in doing various kinds of tasks
or projects and solving the problems faced (Slavin Robert, 1995).
Foreign
language learning cannot be separated from efforts to instill grammatical
understanding in students. This is because grammar is a means for students to
be able to practice their language skills such as listening, speaking, reading,
and writing. In other words, all learning activities or language skills are
closely related to the existence and function of grammar. The facts show
that the contribution of grammar mastery for students is very important in
sustaining language skills competence (Cam & Tran, 2017; T�rkmen & Aydin, 2016), making it easier
for them to participate in language skills learning activities fluently (Mart,
2013), achieving English competence better (Ibrahim, 2016).
Grammar
Translation Method (GTM) is an approach to learning grammar by translating from
a foreign language into the mother tongue and preferably (Celce-Murcia & McIntosh, 1991). GTM is considered
the oldest traditional approach. Nonetheless, GTM is still considered a great
way of learning grammar. This is because by using GTM, students will have
access to find out the structural differences between English and Indonesian.
What is important in the use or application
of this GTM strategy is that in foreign language learning, each student will
make an effort to reflect the foreign language they are learning on the
existence of their mother tongue (Harmer, 2007). This causes that
there is a need for mastery in knowing the difference between what is in the
mother tongue and in a foreign language. In addition, understanding foreign
languages is generally related to efforts to understand the
differences and similarities in meaning through sentences produced in mother
and foreign languages (Brown & Lee, 2015).
The method or approach to learning 'Problem-Based
Learning' emerged in the 1960s in Canada. This method or approach uses the
problem as a reference in the learning activities held. The most important
thing in this method or approach is that the implementation of this method or
approach is collaborative, constructive, and conceptual (Ribeiro, 2011). What is the
target or hope for the teacher to the students is the emergence of a critical
mindset or high order thinking (Boud & Feletti, 1997; Tan, 2021; Woods et al., 2000). Each problem
studied will make students think critically and sharply in an effort to solve
the problem. The existing problems can arise without a plan or deliberately
planned by the teacher.
Language and
culture are like two sides of a coin that are interrelated. Language is one of
the cultural elements that exist in an area or country. The close relationship
between culture and language causes the language learning process to be
inseparable from the role of culture itself. What happens in the language
learning process also presents a process of transmission and acculturation
between the mother and foreign languages learned by students.
Thus, the communication and interaction created through understanding the
differences between the two languages will be transmitted through
the coding and shaping of the experiences that occur (Peterson & Coltrane, 2003).
Experts also
state that language learning is also an activity to understand not only the
concept of a foreign language being studied, but also an understanding of the
cultural existence of the foreign language (Janzen, 2008; Tanaka, 2006). In this regard,
teachers are expected to be able to direct language learning through a
cross-cultural understanding approach (Cross-Cultural Understanding) as an
effort to build competence and cultural awareness in the use of foreign
languages through communication and interaction (Harumi, 2002).
METHOD
This study used
a quantitative approach with a survey design to reveal the contribution of each
individual in team work to solve problems related to grammatical understanding
through cross-cultural translation (Creswell, 2012). There were 50
participants in this study. They were 5th semester students majoring in English
literature at Dr. University. Soetomo Surabaya. They carried out learning
activities using the 'Cooperative Learning' strategy by applying 'Problem-based
Learning' through grammar learning activities with cross-cultural translation
methods. Concretely, they were divided into several groups to solve various
problems in the cross-cultural translation activity.
The research instrument used a questionnaire which was
distributed to the participants. The questionnaire consisted of 16 closed
questions related to the role and contribution of each individual in the team
work that was built. The questionnaire will be distributed via Google form. The
questionnaire was taken from the CL rubric developed by the International
Reading Association and National Council of Teachers of English (2003). The
data of the closed-ended questionnaire were automatically analysed by Google
Form in the form of percentage. In addition to that, the researchers conducted
manual calculations on Microsoft Excel to confirm the results from the Google
Form. The rubric represents the five principles of CL (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). The
closed-ended questionnaire is described in Table 1.
Table
1
Closed-ended
questionnaire items
|
�
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
|
Contribution
to group goals
|
Works
toward group goals only when prompted
�
|
Works
toward group goals with occasional prompting
�
|
Works
toward group goals without occasional prompting; accepts and fulfils
individual role within group
�
|
Consistently
and actively works toward group goals; willingly accepts and fulfils
individual role within group
�
|
|
Consideration
of others
|
Needs
occasional reminders to be sensitive to the feelings of others
�
|
Shows
sensitivity to the feelings of others
�
|
Shows
and expresses sensitivity to the feelings of others; encourages the
participation of other
�
|
Shows
sensitivity to the feelings and learning needs of others; values the
knowledge, opinion, and skills of all group members and encourages their
contribution
�
|
|
Contribution
of knowledge
|
Contributes
information to the group only when prompted
�
|
Contributes
information to the group with occasional prompting or reminding
�
|
Contributes
knowledge, opinions, and skills without prompting or reminding
�
|
Consistently
and actively contributes knowledge, opinions, and skills without prompting or
reminding
�
|
|
Working
and sharing with others
|
Participates
in needed changes when prompted and encouraged; always or often relies on
others to do the work
�
|
Participates
in needed changes with occasional prompting; often needs reminding to do the
assigned work
�
|
Willingly
participates in needed changes; usually does the assigned work and rarely
needs reminding
�
|
Helps
the group identify necessary changes and encourages group action for change;
always does the assigned work without having to be reminded
�
|
Table 1 describes four items that the students need to
assess their peers in their group. Item 1 asks the students� contribution to
group goals; 1 shows the least contribution and 4 shows the biggest
contribution. Item 1 explores three CL principles: positive interdependence,
individual accountability, and group processing. Item 2 asks the students to
assess their peers� consideration of others; 1 shows the least considerate and
4 shows the most considerate. Item 2 examines promotive interactions and
appropriate use of social skills principles. Item 3 asks the students�
contribution of knowledge with 1 shows the least contribution and 4 shows the
most contribution of knowledge to the group. Item 3 explores individual
accountability CL principle. Item 4 asks the students to assess their group mates
whether they work and share with others. Item 4 examines positive
interdependence, appropriate use of social skills, and group processing CL
principles
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
What was found in the
research was taken from the close-ended questionnaires given to the students
for assessing their team based on their contribution to the group goals,
consideration of others, contribution of knowledge, and working and sharing
with others. The first was about the students� contributions to the group
goals.
Figure
1. Students� Contribution to Group Goals
The result showed that almost 65% of the students were consistent
in being active and working toward group goals and accept or fulfil individual
roles within the group, 20 % of the students were occasionally working toward
group goals and accept or fulfil individual roles within the group, 15 % of the
students worked to achieve group goals with occasional prompting. And 5 % of
the students contributed to the group goals when they are asked.
What can be noted here is that the students had a strong
initiation for implementing 2 CL principles - positive interdependence
and individual accountability (Johnson
& Johnson, 2009). In this case, the students� encouragement
for helping each other may boost their achievement (Spencer,
2015). Individual accountability may happen in
the groups by assisting its members to be a strong member (Casey
& Dyson, 2012). The second was about students�
consideration of others. The result could be seen from the diagram below.
Figure 2. Students� Consideration of Others
The result showed that almost 55 % of the students had a complete
sensitivity to others to contribute in working as a team member in solving the
problems, 20 % of the students committed to encourage others to contribute in
working as a team member in solving the problems, 15 % of the students
committed to show sensitivity to the feelings of others. 10 % of the students
needed occasional reminders to be sensitive to the feelings of others.
What can be taken into the consideration
is that there exists a great potential for facing the confrontation within the
group members in sharing their ideas. To avoid this, the students are claimed
to have a complete sensitivity to others which can prevent something worse to
happen. This is also beneficial for making the students have a good control
when sharing or finding different opinions by respecting others. The third was
about how the team contributed knowledge. This could be seen in the following
diagram.
Figure 3. Students� Contribution of Knowledge
The result showed that 45% of the students had a good consistency
to contribute knowledge, opinions, and skills
without prompting and reminding. 35 % of the students had no prompting
contribution in contributing knowledge, opinions, and skills, 15 % of the
students got occasional contribution of knowledge, opinions, and skills, and 5
% of the students committed to contribute information to the group only when
prompted.
What can be realized that each individual
contribution can be the key success of solving the problems faced within the
groups built. However, entailing the contribution from each individual is not
an easy matter. It needs the consistency coming from their own initiation. So
that, CL activities may get a big success if each group member has a good
realization for showing their own contribution in the group. The last was
about how
the team worked and shared with others.
Figure 4. Students� Working and Sharing with Others
The result showed that 55 % of the students had no reminders to
work and share with others by identifying necessary changes and encouraging
others for having some actions of getting the changes, 30 % of the students
were rarely willing to work and share with others by
identifying necessary changes and encouraging others for having some actions of
getting the changes, 15% of the students got prompting reminders to work
and share with others by identifying necessary changes and encouraging others
for having some actions of getting the changes, and 10 % of the students had
encouraged actions to work and share with others by identifying necessary
changes and encouraging others for having some actions of getting the changes.
What can be seen is that high social
attention and care from each member can be important to build the coordination
and cooperation among the students or members. In this case, each member has to
be able to ascertain that coordination and cooperation among the individuals in
the group may work well.
CONCLUSION
Problems in understanding grammar cannot be separated from
interfering with differences between the culture of the mother tongue and a
foreign language (English). The implementation of learning strategies using
'Cooperative Learning' with a 'Problem-based Learning' learning system through
cross-cultural translation activities is able to lead students to understand
English grammar better. This is because students are directed to have mutual
and cooperative working in thinking and solving existing problems. As a result,
various problems in understanding grammar through cross-cultural translation
are able to be resolved properly.
Another benefit that can be taken is the awareness for
each individual to show their role and contribution in solving existing
problems. What they display also triggers a very effective interaction and
communication. This provides access for teachers to achieve the real goal of
English learning activities, which is to direct students to be able to use
English as a means of communication and interaction. Thus, learning grammar
that is carried out is not only to understand grammatical concepts well, but
also has the potential to apply these grammatical concepts in student
communication and interaction.
REFERENCES
Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative
competence in ELT. ELT Journal, 56(1), 57�64. Google Scholar
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in
language testing. Oxford university press. Google Scholar
Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of
problem-based learning. Psychology Press. Google Scholar
Brown, H. D., & Lee, H. (2015). Teaching principles.
P. Ed Australia. Google Scholar
Byram, M. (2014). Twenty-five years on�from cultural studies
to intercultural citizenship. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 27(3),
209�225. Google Scholar
Cam, L., & Tran, T. M. T. (2017). An evaluation of using
games in teaching English grammar for first year English-majored students at
Dong Nai Technology University. International Journal of Learning, Teaching
and Educational Research, 16(7), 55�71. Google Scholar
Casey, A., & Dyson, B. (2012). Cooperative learning in
physical education. Cooperative Learning in Physical Education: A
Research-Based Approach, 166�175. Google Scholar
Celce-Murcia, M., & McIntosh, L. (1991). Teaching
English as a second or foreign language. Google Scholar
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning
conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ad.).
Boston, MA. Google Scholar
Gillies, R. M., & Boyle, M. (2011). Teachers� reflections
of cooperative learning (CL): A two‐year follow‐up. Teaching
Education, 22(1), 63�78. Google Scholar
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching
4th ed. England: Pearson Education Limited. Google Scholar
Harumi, I. (2002). A new framework of culture teaching for
teaching English as a global language. RELC Journal, 33(2),
36�57. Google Scholar
Hinojosa, J. (2000). Culture and English language teaching:
An intercultural approach. Cuadernos de Biling�ismo.(1), 107�141. Google Scholar
Ibrahim, N. (2016). Games for Teaching Grammar to Young
Learners. Indonesian Journal of Integrated English Language Teaching, 2(1),
49�63. Google Scholar
Janzen, J. (2008). Teaching English language learners in the
content areas. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1010�1038. Google Scholar
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). An educational
psychology success story: Social interdependence theory and cooperative
learning. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 365�379. Google Scholar
Keyser, M. W. (2000). Active learning and cooperative
learning: understanding the difference and using both styles effectively. Research
Strategies, 17(1), 35�44. Google Scholar
Krieger, D. (2005). Teaching ESL versus EFL: principles and
practices [Vol 43 No 2]. Message Posted to Http://Silviaspence. Tripod.
Com/Sitebuildercontent/Sitebuilderfiles/Teflarticle. Htm. Google Scholar
Lejk, M., & Wyvill, M. (2001). Peer assessment of
contributions to a group project: a comparison of holistic and category-based approaches.
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 26(1), 61�72. Google Scholar
Mart, C. T. (2013). The grammar-translation method and the
use of translation to facilitate learning in ESL classes. Journal of
Advances in English Language Teaching, 1(4), 103�105. Google Scholar
Orsmond, P., Merry, S., & Reiling, K. (1996). The
importance of marking criteria in the use of peer assessment. Assessment
& Evaluation in Higher Education, 21(3), 239�250. Google Scholar
Peterson, E., & Coltrane, B. (2003). Culture in second
language teaching. In Culture in Second Language Teaching. Center for
Applied Linguistics. Google Scholar
Ribeiro, L. R. C. (2011). The pros and cons of problem-based
learning from the teacher�s standpoint. Journal of University Teaching &
Learning Practice, 8(1), 34�51. Google Scholar
Slavin Robert, E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory,
research, and practice. Massachusetts: A Simon and Schuster Company. Google Scholar
Spencer, K. (2015). Cooperative Learning. Google Scholar
Tan, O.-S. (2021). Problem-based learning innovation:
Using problems to power learning in the 21st century. Gale Cengage
Learning. Google Scholar
Tanaka, S. (2006). English and multiculturalism�from the
language user�s perspective. RELC Journal, 37(1), 47�66. Google Scholar
T�rkmen, Y., & Aydin, S. (2016). The Effects of Using
Online Concordancers on Teaching Grammar/�evrimi�i Derlem
Kullanımının Dilbilgisi �ğretimine Etkileri. Atat�rk
�niversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstit�s� Dergisi, 20(1). Google Scholar
Woods, D. R., Felder, R. M., Rugarcia, A., & Stice, J. E.
(2000). The future of engineering education: Part 3. Developing critical
skills. Chemical Engineering Education, 34(2), 108�117. Google Scholar
PEER ASSESSMENTS IN COOPRATIVE
LEARNING TEAMWORKS OF PROBLEM-BASED CROSS-CULTURAL TRANSLATION CLASSROOMS